Fan Loyalty and Merchandise Sales

In the world of sports marketing, understanding what drives fans to buy team-licensed merchandise and sponsor products is crucial for clubs and their sponsors. FC Barcelona (FCB), renowned for its member-based ownership model, offers unique insights into this phenomenon. While private ownership is common among major European soccer clubs, FCB stands out with its democratic structure, allowing members to have a significant say in club decisions. This participative model not only fosters a strong sense of psychological ownership but also impacts members' loyalty and spending behaviors.

Research has shown that psychological ownership—where fans feel a deep connection and sense of control over the club—plays a critical role in influencing their purchase intentions. For FCB members, this feeling of ownership significantly outweighs the impact of mere team identification. This is a game-changer for sports marketers, highlighting the need to focus on fostering psychological ownership through promotional strategies.

FCB's commitment to its members and Catalan identity further amplifies this effect. By enhancing match experiences, supporting travel, improving social spaces, and boosting fan activities, FCB can deepen this sense of ownership and drive merchandise sales. The club's alignment with Catalonia's social, political, and economic context also plays a pivotal role in strengthening members' emotional bonds.

Looking ahead, future research should explore how these findings apply to other clubs with similar member-based structures or previously held such structures before major investments. By expanding the scope to include different clubs and broader member samples, we can better understand the dynamics of fan loyalty and its impact on purchasing behaviors.

For sports managers and marketers, embracing these insights means crafting strategies that not only highlight the pride of ownership but also resonate with the unique cultural and organizational contexts of their clubs. This approach promises not only increased sales but also stronger, more engaged fan communities.

Palau-Saumell, R., Matute, J., & Forgas-Coll, S. (2022). The roles of team identification and psychological ownership in fans’ intentions to purchase team-licensed and a sponsor’s products: The case of FC Barcelona members. Sport Management Review, 25(5), 791-819.

Justice and Responsibility in Sport Organiations

Understanding Justice and Responsibility in Sport Organizations: A Call for Shared Responsibility

When we think about justice and responsibility in sports, our focus often lands on the roles of decision-makers and leaders. Discussions typically revolve around concepts like organizational justice, diversity management, and corporate social responsibility (CSR). These frameworks analyze how fairness and equity are handled within sport organizations, from how resources are distributed to how diverse workforces are treated. Generally, the responsibility for ensuring justice falls on the shoulders of managers and leaders. However, CSR extends this responsibility to the broader community, involving everyone from consumers to employees.

Yet, CSR often stops short of fostering a sense of shared responsibility among all stakeholders. The idea of shared responsibility—rooted in the interconnectedness of entities within cooperative and competitive systems—suggests that addressing systemic issues requires acknowledging and acting on our connections to both internal and external stakeholders. This concept is particularly relevant for tackling harm and injustice in sports, where entrenched cultural norms and institutional practices can perpetuate power imbalances and inequality.

Consider the case of the Penn State University football program, where hierarchical power dynamics allowed Jerry Sandusky's sexual misconduct to continue unchecked for years. This situation underscores the need for a model of shared responsibility that extends the duty to address harm to everyone involved in sport institutions. In such cases, ignorance and vulnerability are not just incidental; they are integral to maintaining an unjust system.

Ignorance and Vulnerability: The Unseen Forces

Ignorance in sport organizations isn’t just about lacking knowledge—it's a socially constructed tool used to maintain control and suppress dissent. It can distort knowledge acquisition and perpetuate oppressive power dynamics. Forms of ignorance, from passive disregard to strategic concealment, help uphold unjust systems. For instance, in sports, protecting a program's reputation often takes precedence over addressing issues like abuse and violence. This form of ignorance, promoted by oppressive structures, leads to various forms of harm.

Similarly, vulnerability in sports is often misunderstood. It's not merely about being exposed to harm but is shaped by societal inequities and power dynamics. Vulnerability varies in degree based on factors like likelihood and magnitude of threats, and it's exacerbated by oppressive environments that prioritize performance over participant well-being. Understanding vulnerability as "openness to being affected and altered" can help challenge and dismantle oppressive structures. However, it can also reinforce these structures if not addressed properly.

The Case for Shared Responsibility

Responsibility for injustices within hierarchical structures, such as those seen in the NFL’s handling of traumatic brain injuries (TBI), should not fall solely on one individual or entity. The concept of shared responsibility emphasizes that everyone involved—players, coaches, spectators, and consumers—shares a role in addressing and mitigating harm. This collective approach is essential for creating a safer and more equitable sporting environment.

The traditional focus on liability often misses the broader picture. Legal and moral frameworks might assign blame to specific entities, but they frequently overlook the systemic issues that perpetuate injustice. Instead, a social connection model of responsibility suggests that no single entity should bear the full weight of responsibility. Rather, all stakeholders within a system that perpetuates injustice share a degree of responsibility.

Educational Programs and Cultural Shifts

Education is a powerful tool for addressing and preventing harm in sports. Comprehensive programs targeting players, coaches, parents, and other stakeholders are essential for improving injury management and prevention. Historically, abuse and violence in sports have been ignored due to institutional norms prioritizing performance and program protection. This has led to individual blame rather than addressing systemic issues.

Cultural norms within sports—such as aggression and hypermasculinity—often discourage athletes from disclosing abuse and perpetuate a "culture of silence." To break this cycle, sport management researchers and practitioners need to critically examine processes and policies, ensuring an athlete-centered approach that prioritizes well-being over performance.

Towards a Safer Sporting Environment

The proposed conceptual model argues that power imbalances and structural injustices in sports lead to ignorance, vulnerability, and harm. By adopting a perspective of shared responsibility, athletes, parents, coaches, educators, and administrators can challenge these injustices and improve safety in sport. This shift involves questioning harmful norms, prioritizing athlete well-being, and promoting shared responsibility across various stakeholders.

Sport organizations must balance profit with morality and safety. Shared responsibility can enhance relationships, improve public image, and underscore the broader social impact of sports. Effective change requires a cultural shift within sport organizations—one that aligns norms and practices with moral acceptability and addresses issues like concussions with seriousness and integrity.

In conclusion, acknowledging and addressing ignorance, vulnerability, and responsibility are crucial steps toward creating a safer, more equitable sporting environment. By embracing shared responsibility, the sports community can work together to challenge and dismantle harmful structures, ensuring the well-being of all participants.

Sartore-Baldwin, M. L., McCullough, B., & Quatman-Yates, C. (2017). Shared responsibility and issues of injustice and harm within sport. Quest, 69(3), 366-383.

This summary is © by Claudia Benavides-Espinoza

Special Olympics & S.O. Arkansas

All, what a wonderful discussion and presentation we had today in Sports in Society. Well done everyone! Here are the resources that were passed around (see photo) as well as the video of our presenters and Cash's presentation on injuries. When we hear all this, what comes to mind on how we can apply this information to Sport Management? How do you plan on using this information on your professional development? Do any other Sport Management opportunities open up when listening to and of the presenters?  

Newman, B., Fidge, J., Haskins, A., Holt, C., & Dexter, W. (2022). Injury trends in special olympic athletes from the 2018 USA games. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 32(6), 620-922. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0000000000001033

Check out Cash's slides here. 

Olympic reurbanization and small business

    The study revolves around Beijing's urban renewal for the 2022 Winter Olympics. This transformation aims to create an Olympic hub and necessary facilities. Small businesses in the area are often ignored in such projects, which is the study's focus. It aims to shed light on how Olympic-driven renewal impacts local businesses and contribute insights for event organizers and city planners.

    The research looks at the "right to the city" framework proposed by Lefebvre, exploring how it clashes with the neoliberal agenda embraced by Olympic host cities. Small businesses, frequently overlooked, become the study's main focus to understand the impact of these dynamics on them.

    Urban regeneration's relationship with neoliberalism and the right to the city framework is discussed, highlighting winners and losers – large corporations and disadvantaged locals. Previous studies spotlighted negative effects on London's small businesses during the 2012 Olympics. This study, set in China's socialist backdrop, aims to see how this translates in a different context.

    The case study methodology examines the impact of renewal before the 2022 Winter Olympics on Beijing's small businesses. Interviews with 14 proprietors reveal both positive and negative effects. Positive aspects are modest, tied to increased activity during construction. Negative outcomes fall into themes of "sacrifice as patriotism" and "no right to the city."

    Despite willing sacrifice, business owners express frustration at being excluded from decision-making. This echoes the "patriotic professionals" concept, revealing the complexity of their responses. The study concludes that the "right to the city" framework applies to Olympic cities, showing how exclusion impacts small businesses.

    In conclusion, the study suggests well-planned renewal engaging local stakeholders can uphold the right to the city. Limitations include a single sample and data collection during the pandemic. Still, the study advances understanding and calls for further research in diverse contexts.

Rocha, C. M., & Cao, G. (2023). Impacts of urban regeneration on small business in preparation to host the beijing 2022 winter olympic games. Sport in Society, 26(6), 985-1002. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2022.2088357

Photo: Olympic Observation Towers in Beijing by zhang kaiyvy 

eSports job market

    The esports industry has long been hailed as a realm of opportunity for gamers, with its promise of massive prize pools and unprecedented growth. However, a closer look shows this is not the case. The article assigned this week dives into the esports industry, highlighting the unequal distribution of income and opportunities in this field.

    At first glance, the allure of esports as a gateway to riches for all may seem tempting. Yet, as the study shows, such a perspective obscures the truth that the majority of competitive gamers, even the professionals, do not reap the rewards of top-tier prizes. Elite earners skews the expectations of aspiring players, discourages constructive critique of the industry, and masks the inherent disparities ingrained within.

    The research takes on the challenge of dismantling these prevailing narratives, aiming to expose the reality of income inequality within the esports arena, particularly concerning tournament prize pools. A meticulous analysis of major esports events spanning from 2005 to 2019, drawing data from Esports Earnings, uncovers the deep-rooted income inequality and gender disparities. The article further paints a portrait of the structure underpinning the esports landscape, characterized by the influential role of game developers and professional event organizers.

    The evolution of esports is retraced back to its origins in the 1990s, when pioneers introduced prize-based tournaments. The article highlights the pivotal impact of game developers like Activision Blizzard and Valve Corporation, whose annual world championships have catapulted certain games into the spotlight. The landscape of esports tournaments varies, ranging from open-system setups exemplified by "The International" in Dota 2 to the franchised model of the "Overwatch League." Players’ revenue streams include salaries, prize money, and streaming proceeds, although budding professionals predominantly rely on prize winnings and streaming. However, these trends coexist with persistent gender inequalities, a dearth of regulations, and a lack of player protections, giving rise to long hours, job instability, and truncated careers.

    The study concludes despite the immense promise, the esports realm is plagued by significant income inequality, effectively nurturing a burgeoning class of low-earning competitors. This study shines a spotlight on the unique hurdles that esports players face, calls for a deeper comprehension of industry dynamics, and advocates for equitable practices and regulations to level the playing field.

    Delving into the review of existing literature and the methodology employed, the study is contextualized within the global trend of escalating income inequality, which leads to the uneven distribution of resources. Income inequality's paramount component, earnings disparity, is dissected due to its profound influence on societal divisions and individual life outcomes. While traditional class-based theories once explained earnings inequality, contemporary shifts point toward the growing prominence of within-occupation inequality. The notion of "rent destruction" encapsulates the phenomena of lower/middle-income individuals losing out on rent-generation power, while the highest earners consolidate more substantial returns. This inequality dynamic echoes throughout esports, where corporations like Activision-Blizzard influence the playing field. The study employs the lens of within-occupation inequality, positing that the lavish earnings of a select few serve as a catalyst to motivate the larger player population while minimizing expenses.

    Incorporating the concepts of aspirational labor and hope labor, the study intriguingly demonstrates how extreme inequality acts as both motivation for players and a veneer of opportunities. By addressing research inquiries pertaining to prize-based earnings inequality in esports, the study employs data culled from Esports Earnings, concentrating on players earning above $3000 annually. The investigation harnesses Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to cast light on the burgeoning income and inequality trends within the esports labor market. Notably, even the most popular games encounter growth and inequality dynamics, underscoring the widespread nature of the phenomenon.

    Results from the study show while earnings in the esports sector are on the rise, inequality is growing in tandem. The data points to a pattern wherein high-earning individuals are increasingly monopolizing earnings growth, resulting in an ever-widening chasm between the lowest and highest earners. This research goes beyond mere observations, striving to unravel the mechanics of within-occupation inequality in esports and the ways in which it shapes both player motivations and industry trajectories.

    The ensuing segment engages with the study's findings concerning earnings inequality, class reproduction dynamics, and gender imbalances in the esports realm. Anchored in data spanning from 2005 to 2019, the study employs diverse metrics to comprehend how earnings distribution evolves over time and how inequality manifests itself.

    Earnings Inequality: The study homes in on players earning beyond the $3000 (adjusted to 2019 dollars) threshold, tracing income distribution through the Lorenz curve model. This analysis unearths three distinct temporal periods:

• The years from 2005 to 2009: Characterized by fluctuating inequality, mirroring the volatility of an emerging industry.

• The stretch spanning 2009 to 2014: Marked by consistent inequality escalation, hinting at a trajectory towards greater disparity.

• The phase encompassing 2015 to 2019: Indicative of a stabilization in earnings distribution, characterized by more modest shifts. The Gini coefficient, serving as a measure of inequality, exhibited a steady increase over the years, indicating the mounting chasm in earnings. Different games experienced unique peak moments and trends, suggesting diverse dynamics of inequality at play. Notably, the data implies that game developers and event organizers might wield uneven prize structures as tools to draw in more gamers and promote their games, thereby contributing to the observed inequality.

    Class Reproduction: Median earnings across various games remained relatively meager, occasionally surpassing the $1000 mark. The growth in median income was seldom evenly shared among players, often stagnating or even dwindling. The proportion of competitors capable of crossing the poverty threshold fluctuated among games, yet most games exhibited an upper limit on how many players could realistically sustain themselves solely from prize earnings. The study's assertion emerges: while a handful might attain earnings enabling social mobility, a majority will need supplementary income sources to maintain their livelihoods, perpetuating a cycle of reproduction rather than upward mobility.

    Gender Disparities: Female players experienced growth in the number earning prize money and an overall uptick in total female earnings, yet glaring disparities persisted. The female players' share of total prize earnings compared to the broader labor market dwindled from approximately 2% to less than 1% in subsequent years. Highlighting the sobering reality, the highest-earning female player substantially trailed the top male player, serving as a stark reminder of the enduring gender pay gap. Although strides were witnessed in the earnings of female players, the study emphasized the persistence of gender disparities within esports earnings, underscoring the challenges in attaining gender parity.

Discussion and Implications:

A chasm looms between the triumphant narratives casting esports as a realm of boundless opportunity and the harsh reality of concentrated wealth among the elite. The study emphasizes the necessity of policy shifts, including the implementation of labor protections, to tackle the issue of inequality plaguing the esports industry. The study champions the cause of gender equality and the increased representation of females within the esports fold, highlighting the critical need for transformative initiatives. The study elegantly employs the concepts of aspirational labor and hope labor to unveil how the guise of opportunities can veil stark economic realities for the majority.

McLeod, C. M., Xue, H., & Newman, J. I. (2022). Opportunity and inequality in the emerging esports labor market. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 57(8), 1279-1300. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902211064093

Racial stacking

In the last two decades, a surge of research has turned its focus towards understanding the role of sports within immigrant societies. In Europe, particularly in Germany, there's been a significant emphasis on sports as a tool for integration. However, the intricate ways racism intertwines with sports have often been overlooked. While a wealth of studies explores racism's presence in sports — touching on subjects like racial disparities, biased media portrayals, and uneven representation in leadership roles — a consistent thread emerges: deeply ingrained racist beliefs persist within the realm of sports. Paradoxically, this phenomenon remains insufficiently examined within the German context, creating a gap in academic exploration.

This article hones in on one specific facet of anti-Black racism in team sports, a phenomenon coined 'racist stacking.' This refers to the conspicuous underrepresentation of Black players in pivotal and leadership roles, in stark contrast to their overrepresentation in physically demanding positions. Our central question revolves around whether this occurrence finds a foothold in German men's professional soccer and whether it should be seen as a form of institutional racism.

To challenge the concept of distinct human 'races,' we employ the term 'racist stacking' instead of 'racial stacking.' This shift highlights the significance of language in dismantling racial beliefs. Even when the construct of 'race' is employed in a socially nuanced manner, racism is far more intricate than 'race' alone can capture; it's interwoven with gender, class, migration, language, and citizenship. In this context, the terms 'Black' and 'white' signify processes of racialization, societal positions, and power dynamics rather than mere skin color.

Historically, research on racist stacking surfaced in the 1960s in the United States. It revealed a concerning trend: the systematic underrepresentation of Black athletes in pivotal roles across sports like baseball, football, and basketball. This investigative work spread to other countries and sports, soccer included, though with a primary focus on England. Strikingly, despite shifts in the sports landscape, older and contemporary studies alike point to a consistent trend: Black players are frequently confined to roles emphasizing physical prowess, while white players continue to dominate roles that involve leadership and decision-making.

Delving into racist stacking often involves scrutinizing whether Black players are disproportionately assigned less influential positions, aiming to unravel the roots of this phenomenon. Contributing factors include coaches' racial biases, socioeconomic status, self-isolation due to perceived obstacles, and a lack of role models. However, existing research often centers on empirical observations rather than delving into the underlying theoretical intricacies of the phenomenon.

This article seeks to illuminate the multi-layered complexity of racist stacking and the theoretical implications it carries. By doing so, it casts light on how racial prejudices subtly infiltrate sports institutions.

Expanding the discourse to Germany, the text addresses how racism intertwines with stacking, particularly within the sports sector. Racism is anchored in the belief of hierarchical categorization of humans into distinct 'races,' fueling the notion of certain races' superiority over others. These beliefs have historical roots, notably during the 18th and 19th centuries, serving to legitimize colonialism, oppression, and exploitation. Remarkably, these racist ideologies persist within modern society, residing both within individuals and institutions.

Germany, a nation with a colonial past and a history of racial policies culminating in the Holocaust, is not exempt from the presence of racism and racialization processes. Yet, public discourse and academic exploration of racism, particularly anti-Black racism, have been relatively limited until recently. Rather than centering discussions around terms like 'Black and People of Color' (BPoC) to encompass experiences of racism, conversations often gravitate towards the concept of 'migration background,' inadvertently sidelining Black experiences and perpetuating racial biases.

On the sports front, international research vividly illustrates the ubiquity of racism, particularly in the portrayal of athletes through stereotypical media depictions. Our study embarks on an exploration: whether racism finds its way into the structural fabric of Germany's sports sector via a phenomenon termed 'racist stacking.' This refers to a potential pattern where Black players are excluded from positions demanding strategic aptitude and leadership while being disproportionately clustered in roles accentuating physical prowess.

Zooming in on data from the male divisions of the first and second soccer Bundesliga in Germany for the 2020/2021 season, our study meticulously crafted playing position profiles from diverse sources. This yielded the identification of seven distinct positions: goalkeeper, center backs, wing backs, defensive center midfielder, attacking center midfielder, wingers, and striker. Based on these, our research hypotheses were formulated:

• Black players are anticipated to be underrepresented in positions reliant on tactical skills and intelligence (goalkeeper, defensive center midfielder, attacking center midfielder).
• Black players are expected to be overrepresented in positions highlighting physical attributes (wing backs, wingers, striker).

Our dataset, comprising 967 cases spanning 36 clubs, was painstakingly assembled using information sourced from transfermarkt.de. We recorded player citizenship and primary positions, subsequently categorizing players as 'Black,' 'white,' or 'further People of Color' based on visual assessment. Acknowledging the intricate dynamics of racialization processes, we remain conscious of the limitations posed by such categorizations.

In a nutshell, our exploration delves into the intricate interplay of racism and stacking in sports, homing in on the German context. By highlighting the persistent historical grip of racist ideologies and their far-reaching influence on societal structures, we begin to unveil how these biases may potentially materialize within sports institutions. Through our study, we endeavor to unearth whether racial stereotypes play a role in determining player distributions across diverse positions in soccer.

Nobis, T., & Lazaridou, F. (2023). Racist stacking in professional soccer in germany. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 58(1), 23-42. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902221081125

Photo: Soccer players by RF._.studio

Racial diversity in skateboarding

Skateboarding: It's more than just a sport; it's a vibrant subculture that has its own unique relationship with diversity. While conventional narratives might perceive skateboarding as a predominantly white domain, a deeper dive reveals a tapestry of racial complexity that challenges stereotypes and opens new perspectives.

Contrary to popular belief, skateboarding doesn't neatly fit into the boxes of race and diversity. Sure, racial backgrounds vary, but exclusion isn't necessarily rooted in race or gender. Instead, it's often about embracing the essence of skate culture. This intriguing interplay between skateboarding and diversity introduces three novel ways to understand this intricate relationship.

1. A Global Mosaic of Diversity
Skateboarding isn't confined by borders. It has roots in different parts of the world, breaking barriers of racial homogeneity. These diverse roots challenge historical experiences of racism and draw participants from various backgrounds. The medium of skateboarding videos serves as a powerful showcase of how diverse racial identities enrich the culture across continents.

2. Escape from Racial Norms
Skateboarding can be a sanctuary for those who defy traditional racial expectations. Unlike other subcultures, skateboarders often find escape from rigid racial politics, embracing a different kind of identity fluidity. This dynamic flips the script on the notion that skateboarding can't navigate complex racial waters.

3. Unconventional Narratives of Race
Skateboarding media doesn't conform to conventional socio-cultural analyses. Instead, it offers unfiltered stories of race, youth, sports, and urban life. These narratives are raw and authentic, breaking free from conventional cultural influences and giving voice to the unspoken stories that resonate within the skateboarding community

While this analysis uncovers profound insights, it's important to note that the landscape of racial diversity in skateboarding varies across contexts and times. This exploration isn't an exhaustive study of skateboarding history and doesn't dismiss the significance of gender and sexuality. The research is based on textual analysis of skate videos and is enriched by the author's deep involvement in skateboarding culture.

Skate videos are more than just visual records; they're artifacts that chronicle the intricate dance between race and skateboarding. They reveal the essence of where racial stories intertwine with skate culture. This spotlight on videos challenges the conventional focus on market-driven portrayals and mainstream documentaries, giving a new dimension to how we perceive skateboarding's racial landscape.

Certain skate videos from the early 2000s provide a canvas for racially diverse bodies to express themselves. These videos capture skaters from various ethnicities seamlessly blending gestures, clothing styles, music subcultures, and street cultures unique to their cities. This fluidity destabilizes traditional notions of race in skateboarding and showcases the culture's true diversity.

Critiques of commoditized racial diversity within skateboarding's marketing campaigns are valid but often directed at larger brands. The heart of skate culture operates on a smaller scale, where authenticity trumps profit-driven stereotypes. This intrinsic diversity challenges the perception of skateboarding as a predominantly white subculture with racial diversity as a mere accessory.

Skateboarding's global expansion and diversification are meticulously documented in skate videos. These visual narratives offer an intimate look at how gender, ethnicity, and race dynamics evolve within the subculture. While some videos may perpetuate problematic representations, they collectively enrich our understanding of the complex relationship between skateboarding and diversity.

In conclusion, skateboarding isn't just a sport; it's a vibrant cultural realm that defies easy categorization. The relationship between skateboarding and race is a nuanced tapestry, shaped by the interplay of cultural diversity, personal experiences, and global dynamics. As skateboarding continues to evolve, so too does our appreciation for its intricate connection with diversity.

McDuie-Ra, D. (2023). Racial diversity in skateboarding: Destabilising whiteness, decentring heartlands. Sport in Society, ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2023.2208079